Chapter 14-16 Essays - Gediminids, Grand Dukes Of Lithuania

Chapter 14-16 Mindovg Also known as Mindaugas, this man was the first king of Lithuania, which was forced to coalesce into some semblance of a pagan state due to pressures from the Teutonic Knights. This man would adopt Christianity, and a crown from Pope Innocent IV, only to abandon Christianity just prior to his assassination, which sent Lithuanian into a power vacuum and a period of instability. also known as Vytenis, was the first ruler to unite Lithuanian following the assassination of Mindovg. This man ruled from approximately 1295 to 1316 under the title Grand Prince, also known as Grand Duke, and was killed fighting the Teutonic Knights. Viten also known as Vytenis, was the first ruler to unite Lithuanian following the assassination of Mindovg. This man ruled from approximately 1295 to 1316 under the title Grand Prince, also known as Grand Duke, and was killed fighting the Teutonic Knights. Gedymin also known as Gediminas, was the brother of Viten and is known as Lithuania's first true lea der, coalescing the pagan states into a viable political unit. Under this man's rule Lithuanian continued to expand to the southeast, pushing past Polotsk that had already been conquered by Mindovg. It was under this man's rule that Vilna became the capital of Lithuania. Olgerd lso known as Algidas, was the most successful of the Lithuanian rulers, expanding his state to its height to include Volynia, Kiev, Chernigov, and Smolensk. Aided by his brother Keistut, this man was able to fend off the Teutonic Knights, Poland, Muscovy, and the Mongols, allowing his state to stretch from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. This man died in 1377. The success of this man can be contributed to the nature of his state: Russian-Lithuanaian. Over 75% of Lithuania was Russian, Russia was declared the official language of state during this man's rule, and the Lithuanians reformed their army, administration, legal system, and financial system with Russia's as a model. Lithuanian aristocracy also sought to assimilate with the Russia aristocracy. In this manner, Russians did not considered themselves ruled by a foreign occupier but by a Russian state. Jagiello also known as Jogaila, the son and successor of Olgerd, was used by his father in order to secure an alliance with Poland, who fought with Lithuania from many of the same trade routes. Olgerd had his son married to Queen Jadwiga of Poland, becoming the heir of Polish crown. This was necessary as the Piast ruling family had no male heir. When Olgerd passed in 1377, this man became both the Grand Duke of Lithuania and remained the next in line to become the King of Poland, under the Polish name Wladyslaw II. However, in 1392, this man was forced to name Keitut's son Vitovt the Grand Prince of Lithuania, although he was vassal to the King of Poland, who was this man. This arrangement led to two distinctly separate kingdoms under the person union of one man. In 1413, this union, with Lithuania as vassal of Poland, remained even w hen the King of Poland and the Grand Prince of Lithuania were two separate people. After this man, the only man to rule in both positions would be Casimir IV, who ascended in 1447 to the Polish thrown without relinquishing his titled as the Grand Prince of Lithuania. Vitovt also known as Vytautas, was the son of Keistut, the brother of Olgerd and ruled as the Grand Prince of Lithuania, vassal to the King of Poland, from 1392 to 1430. Under this man's rule Lithuania grew to its largest area, absorbing Moldavia, Wallachia, and Bessarabia. This man also secured relative peace with weaker Moscow after Vasilii I married this man's daughter. During his reign, all of Kievan Rus, save Pskov and Novgorod, was either conquered or pledged their alliance to this man. This man led Lithuania against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg, effectively ending the Teutonic threat. However many successes he had, this man had one devastating defeat in 1399 against the Mongols on the bans of the Vorskla River, signaling the decline of Lithuania. The Battle of tannenber known after WWI as the Battle of Grunwald, was fought in 1410 by Lithuania, led

Heritage Tourism and Cultural Tourism

Heritage Tourism and Cultural Tourism Introduction Notably, the distinction between heritage tourism and cultural tourism has not been easy to draw. Researchers have devoted their time in an attempt to establish whether the two aspects are different or they just overlap (Timothy, 2011; Ivanovic, 2008). The key partners in the tourism sector have worked hard to find a way to define and distinguish between cultural and heritage forms of tourism. The subject has generated extensive debates that seek to find whether the two terms are similar and how to use them (Swarbrooke, 2001).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Heritage Tourism and Cultural Tourism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Heritage Tourism and Cultural tourism Cultural tourism is a form of tourism that deals with the country’s culture. It has a major focus on the diverse cultures that different communities have. Sometimes, it is pegged on the art of the community. It also takes an interest in the unique social diversity of one community in a region (Timothy Nyaupane, 2009). The distinct features of one community such as art, which makes it distinguishable, are considered cultural tourism. Cultural tourism is mainly found in an urban setting where large cities and their cultural sites are held very core to tourism (‘Oxford English Dictionary’, 2008). Cultural tourism has also been defined as a form of tourism concerned with the lifestyle of the people in a given country or region. This second definition is aligned to the activities that people engage in rather than the sites (Smith, 2003; Ivanovic, 2008). The historical practices that dictate the life style of one community form the main element of cultural tourism. This form of tourism is not just restricted to urban areas; sometimes, tourists monitor rural community’s festivals. The museums and theatres in many countries are the main reasons why cultural tourism has been considered to be urban base d. In regions where theatres and museums are located in the rural areas, cultural tourism becomes strictly rural (Shackley, 1998). Cultural tourism encompasses movement of people from the residents to gather the necessary information from different cultural backgrounds. The new information and the experiences of traveling are the key purpose of cultural tourism. At the end of the day, a cultural tourist seeks to satisfy the cultural needs. The main destinations in cultural tourism are strictly cultural areas such as historical sites, festivals, and natural ecosystems (Ooi, 2002). On the other hand, heritage tourism is defined as anything that a community receives as a transmission from the past to the present. Such transmissions in the present involve cultural materials, intangible heritage, and natural heritage (Timothy Boyd, 2003). The guiding rule in preservation revolves around the uniqueness of the site to the present and future generations. For it to be considered heritage to urism, people must be moving from one preserved site to another (Smith Robinson, 2006).Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Heritage definition has the word culture. Heritage is thus defined as the travelling of people from one site to another so as to present people’s stories from the past to the present. During the travel, culture has been a facilitating tool. The activities surrounding culture have been the core interest of heritage. It has been stated that heritage tourism is increasingly becoming popular in various parts of the globe. A tourist in heritage tourism is motivated by the presence of heritage sites. This is because heritage is the main product that shapes heritage tourism (Ronchi, 2008). Numerous explanations seeking to show how distinct the cultural tourism is from heritage tourism have been raised. The endless debate to distinguish the two proves that differentiating the two is a complex phenomenon. The distinguishable elements are not only in the definition, but also in the location of the sites. Several sites may be used for heritage tourism and cultural tourism. Such usage has confused many tourists to a point of finding no difference between the two. The interchangeable nature of the sites has made it hard to realize the difference between the two aspects (Richards, 2001). Heritage tourism has several characteristics. Firstly, it ranges from sites considered relatively small to international sites. The small sites are normally not staffed while major attractions are well coordinated and staffed. Small heritage sites have few visitors who are expected at a certain time of the year (Singh, 2002). Heritage sites also have natural resources. Admission to view these sites is free and at a time charged according to the market rate (Graham Howard, 2008). There has been a perception that heritage sites are managed for to urism purposes. However, there are other heritage sites that are protected (National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States, 1991). Promotion of authenticity has been one of the major characteristics of heritage tourism. It consists of having a competent visitor services delivery offering quality products. The benefits offered to a visitor always vary depending on the visitor’s experiences (Moufakkir Kelly, 2010).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Heritage Tourism and Cultural Tourism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It has been argued that heritage and cultural tourism are hard to consider as distinct. The above definitions clearly indicate that the two types of tourism tend to overlap. It has been further asserted that the areas that overlap are more than the notable differences (Singh, 2005). The main unanswered question has been how to distinguish between a cultural and heritage visitor. The two elements are similar and a suggestion to create well-rounded cultural heritage tourism experiences has been a fostered by key tourism stakeholders all over the world today (Lavery and Van Doren, 1990). A survey between the two types of tourism basing on the programs in heritage and cultural tourism shows that many of the heritage programs are found in rural areas. On the other hand, cultural sites are found in urban settings (Howarth, Rowley, Butterfield, Madeley Museums Association, 1901). The classification of the two programs has often been pegged on the location of the sites which distinguishes the two (Richards, 1996). In describing historical preservation, the word heritage tourism is used. On the other hand, in cultural tourism programs, museums and theatres are evident. In the preservation of the sites for tourism purposes, it is clear that what is termed as the â€Å"culture of today† becomes the heritage of the future (McIntosh Goeldner, 1986). There are clear differences between heritage tourism and cultural tourism. Heritage tourism is said to be place-based compared to cultural tourism. Heritage tourism is attached to the place while cultural tourism is based on experience with minimum or no emphasis on the place. In other words, the content of cultural and heritage tourism has always been the same, but the context differs (Leask, 2008). Though the definition and understanding of cultural and heritage tourism have been hard to distinguish, it is still clear that lay people and visitors attach some different meanings to the two aspects. However, in the broad sense, the two words have been used interchangeably. An imagination of a distinct definition between heritage tourism and cultural tourism has been extremely pursued (Kockel, 1994). There is one main reason as to why different researchers and other interested parties have sought the distinction between the two elements. This reason is grounded on the fact that various tourists find the two aspects to be different. The various reasons as to why people visit heritage sites have triggered the need to have a definition (Leask Fyall, 2006; Leask Yeoman, 1999). The complexity of definition has been promoted by the fact that a cultural tourist will visit a heritage site with a reason. On the contrary, a casual tourist visits a heritage site for adventure. The attraction is sometimes used to discover a site for the first time (Howard Ashworth, 1999).Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To unfold the complexity introduced by definition and why it is necessary to define heritage sites, it is important to state that the object of heritage tourism is the people. Therefore, it is difficult to define heritage tourism. This is because the definition has various meanings to different individuals (Hoffman, 2006). The unique way in which different individuals perceive heritage site dictates the nature of experiences to be achieved by the tourists. There are those who view a heritage site as a place where they go for holidays. On the other hand, there are others who collect information from such sites (Agarwal Shaw, 2007). The cultural background of an individual helps in understanding heritage tourism. Notably, it is not possible to distinguish cultural influences from the understanding of heritage tourism. What the Americans consider as reasons to visiting a heritage site may be understood differently by someone in Australia (Hannerz, 1992). The main reason for such varia tions is that different places have different types of heritage sites (Timothy Boyd, 2006). In some instances, natural places are regarded as sites while others attach heritage to the notion that the people in a given place are unique. From the analysis, it is possible to observe there is no uniformity in the definition for heritage tourism (Hall Jenkins, 2003). There is a need to unveil the complexity behind the definition of heritage tourism. This is triggered from the fact that, in recent year’s, heritage has become a commodity that is capable of being sold. The selling includes substantial marketing that requires diverse knowledge. Most of the heritage sites around the globe have been widely advertised to allow tourism attraction (Hall McArthur, 1996). In order to attract the target group, one ought to be aware of the cultural meanings of a heritage. There are some parts where heritage is not a tourism product since people believe that it represents ancestry. Some are strictly opposed to its commercialization (Sharma, 2004). Such opposition is very evident in rural sites. Many still argue that it is unfair for people to try to market heritage while they are unable to get an extensive definition on what it means. The fact that heritage sites have been moved to the urban centers means that the meaning attached to them has been lost through commodification of the sites (Goeldner Ritchie, 2009). The intangible nature of culture has made heritage complex since it has pegged much value to the experience of the site rather than the site. At a time when tourism is determined by the forces of demand and supply, there are interpretations created in understanding the term and its outcome. The assertion that heritage tourism has assisted in preservation of sites has been viewed as promoting the traditional view of heritage sites being a place to remind people of their ancestry (Fyall, Garrod, Leask Wanhill, 2008). The conflict in understanding between the effectiveness of demand and those that believe that heritage is important and should be preserved while others think that heritage is a commercial product. The only way to harmonize the two conflicting sides is by finding a definition to suit the two sides (Goh, 2010). To reach that definition has been hard hence presenting the situation in complex state. Irrespective of the complexities presented by the definition, different researchers have tried to simplify the definition by introducing the three categories of heritage tourism (Drummond, et al, 2000). The first category of heritage tourism is the heritage status attributed to the visited site. Secondly, the visitor’s knowledge of the status given to the site is equally important (Herbert, 1995). Lastly, the relationship between the visitor’s personal heritage and the site is also considered. The categorization of heritage tourism simplifies the complexity (Drummond Yeoman, 2001). The above discussions show how hard it has been to come up with a universal definition to suit heritage tourism. At the same time, it has also proved hard to differentiate heritage from cultural tourism (Palang Fry, 2003). he greatest hurdle which has made it hard to get the definition is the interpersonal differences witnessing in perceiving the word heritage. The naming of the world’s heritage sites by UNESCO has continued each and every day, but it has been hard to get a definition that stands for heritage tourism (Dasgupta, Biswas Mallik, 2009). I would suggest that the suitable universal definition for heritage tourism is: the experience one gets when visiting historical and cultural places. The definition is centered on the experiences rather than the places visited. The factors that compel a conclusive definition are to effect a definition that cuts across to ensure that cultural and heritage aspects are joined together. Such a definition will establish cultural heritage tourism. This is grounded on t he fact that everyday, different heritage sites are created, and hence a more conclusive definition must state the experience and not the site. It has been established that the definition given to a site assists in guiding different tourists. At a time when tourists are from different cultural backgrounds, it is important to have a clear definition so as to avoid confusion. Conclusion The distinction that exists between cultural and heritage tourism is based on form and not substance. The features that make the cultural heritage are sometimes the characteristics of heritage tourism depending on the place. There are notable differences between the two aspects as mentioned above. The complexity in the definition of heritage tourism is worth unveiling so as to get the different context that people adopt. The suggested definition is also critical to assess since it seeks to harmonize the views of different people to create a universal definition that cuts across different people. Touris ts from different cultural background have varied reasons for visiting sites. Therefore, they can only know where to visit if clear definitions are adopted. Reference List Agarwal, S Shaw, G 2007, Coastal tourism resorts: a global perspective, Channel View Publications, Clevedon. Dasgupta, S, Biswas, R Mallik, GK 2009, Heritage tourism: an anthropological journey to Bishnupur, Mittal Publications, New Delhi. Drummond, S, et al 2000, Quality Issues in Heritage Visitor Attractions, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Drummond, S Yeoman, I 2001, Quality issues in heritage visitor attractions, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. Fyall, A, Garrod, B, Leask, A and Wanhill, S 2008, Managing Visitor Attractions: New Directions, John Wiley, Hoboken, N.J. Goh, E 2010, â€Å"Understanding the heritage tourist market segment,† International Journal Leisure and Tourism Marketing Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 14-23. Graham, BJ Howard, P 2008, The Ashgate research companion to heritage and identity, Ashg ate Pub. Co., Burlington, VT. Hall, CM McArthur, S 1996, Heritage Management in Australia New Zealand. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hall, CM Jenkins, JM 2003, Tourism and public policy, Thomson, London. Hannerz, U 1992, Cultural complexity: studies in the social organization of meaning. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. Herbert, DT 1995, Heritage, tourism and society, Mansell, London u.a. Hoffman, BT 2006, Art and cultural heritage: law, policy, and practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Howard, P Ashworth, GJ 1999. European heritage planning and management, Intellect, Exeter [u.a.]. Howarth, E, Rowley, FR, Butterfield, WR, Madeley, C Museums Association 1901, Museums journal, Museums Association, London. Ivanovic, M 2008, Cultural tourism, Juta, Cape Town, South Africa. Kockel, U 1994, Culture, tourism and development: the case of Ireland, Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool. Lavery, P and Van Doren, C 1990, Travel and Tourism, Elm Publications, Suffoilk. Leask, A 200 8, The Nature and Role of Visitor Attractions in A Fyall, et al. (eds) Managing Visitor Attractions, Elsevier, Oxford. Leask, A Fyall, A 2006, Managing World Heritage Sites, Elsevier, Oxford. Leask, A Yeoman, I 1999, Heritage Visitor Attractions An Operations Management Perspective, Continuum, London. McIntosh, RW Goeldner, R 1986, Tourism, principles, practices and philosophies, Wiley, Hoboken, N.J. Moufakkir, O Kelly, I 2010, Tourism, Progress and Peace, CABI, Wallingford [etc.]. National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States 1991, Historic preservation forum: the journal of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, The Trust. Washington, D.C. Ooi, c-s 2002, Cultural tourism and tourism cultures: the business of mediating experiences in Copenhagen and Singapore, Business School Press, Copenhagen. Oxford English Dictionary 2008, viewed on https://www.oed.com/. Palang, H Fry, G 2003, Landscape interfaces: cultural heritage in changing landscapes, Kluwer Acad emic, Dordrecht. Richards, G 2001, Cultural attractions and European tourism, CABI Publ., Wallingford [u.a.]. Richards, G 1996, Cultural tourism in Europe, Internat, Wallingford, CAB. Ronchi, AM 2008, eCulture: Cultural Content in the Digital Age, Springer, Berlin. Shackley, M 1998, Visitor Management Case Studies from World Heritage Sites, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Sharma, KK 2004,Tourism and regional development, Sarup Sons, New Delhi. Singh, S 2002, Tourism in destination communities, CABI Publishing, Wallingford [u.a.]. Singh, T 2005, New horizons in tourism: strange experiences and stranger practices, CABI Pub, Cambridge, MA. Smith, M 2003, Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies, Routledge, London. Smith, MK Robinson, M 2006, Cultural tourism in a changing world: politics, participation and (re)presentation, Channel View Publications, Clevedon, Angleterre, Toronto. Swarbrooke, J 2001, Heritage Tourism in the UK- A glance at things to come. Web. Timothy, DJ 2011, Cultural he ritage and tourism: an introduction, Channel View, Bristol. Timothy, D Boyd, S 2003, Heritage Tourism, Pearson Education Ltd, Harlow. Timothy, D Boyd, S 2006, â€Å"Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century†, Journal of Heritage Tourism, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 22-40. Timothy, D Nyaupane, G 2009, Cultural Heritage and Tourism in the Developing World: a Regional perspective, Routledge, Abingdon.

The Evolution of Grunge in the fashion world Research Paper

The Evolution of Grunge in the fashion world - Research Paper Example Having no money, young people bought clothes on the thrifts and gradually invented so-called â€Å"grunge fashion†. Immensely effected by success of such grunge groups as Nirvana or Pearl Jam, many youngsters also organized local bands and played their own â€Å"loud and guitar-based† music. Finally, it was also about heroine which became cheap and affordable. All grunge musicians were heroine addicts and, therefore, popularized its usage among their followers. Later it will be utilized in the purpose of fashion trend known as â€Å"heroine chic†. Grunge subculture existed from the end of 80s till the beginning of 90s. However, within such a short period of time it made a great impact on the future fashion trends and peoples outlook. Grunge was considered rather controversial phenomenon. Originally, grunge fashion was referred as anti-fashion. However, many critics believed that it was neither fashion, nor anti-fashion, but so-called â€Å"non-, or un-fashion† (Grindstaff, 2014). As for its status as subculture, some also acknowledged that it was rather debatable: â€Å"People who listened to grunge music did not refer to themselves as â€Å"grungers† in the same way as â€Å"punks† or â€Å"hippies† (Price, 2010). Nevertheless, the crucial issue for this paper is mainly grunge style in clothing so further the main grunge tendencies will be analyzed and described. The word â€Å"grunge† means â€Å"dirt, filth, trash† (Martin, 1992). As a term to call new Pacific Northwest sound, it was first used by independent record label Sub Pop in 1980s. Jonathan Poneman, a Sub Pop founder described grunge music as the following: â€Å"It could have been sludge, grime, crud, any word like that†.The group provided cheap recording service for local Seattle bands. Grunge, or Seattle sound, was a â€Å"mix of heavy-metal, punk, and good old-fashioned rock and roll† (Grindstaff, 2014).

Membership requirements in an organized crime group Assignment

Membership requirements in an organized crime group - Assignment Example There are numerous organized crime groups that still operate within the world. All these different crime groups have their own requirements which need to be fulfilled before any person is given its respective membership. The more common membership requirements are deemed to be more focused towards factors such as ethnicity, race and criminal association. One of major membership requirement is that such groups tend to avoid any person who has prior affiliation with any law enforcing agency. Groups such as the â€Å"Hells Angels† ask for a valid driving license and a working motor cycle before they grant any membership.2 The basic advantage to members is that such membership requirements make sure that a proper procedure is followed through which the confidentiality, discipline and smooth operation of the organization is carried out and that inappropriate people are not hired within the group that may sabotage the group. The disadvantage on the other hand is that such membership requirements may not be fulfilled by any potential member who may in future turn out to be a great asset for the organized crime

Mao's propaganda with arts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Mao's propaganda with arts - Essay Example Art propaganda was based on the cult of Mao and his unique vision of communist China. As a charismatic leader, he directed propaganda to mass publics and mass media amplified political and social messages. Mao's art propaganda was a product of the more egalitarian, participant forces that emerged in the communist China (Cheek 82). Unlike members of mass cultures, who were almost wholly dependent on their leaders for propaganda, members of the popular culture have gained the ability to initiate messages as well as respond to them. The aim of art propaganda was to remold the individual (Brady 98). Art propaganda was a part of new mass culture created by Mao. On the domestic front, the new government introduced a system of rationing cards to purchase food, clothing, and other scarce commodities essential for everyday living. Curbing and eliminating social ills also loomed large on the agenda, prompting government officials to crack down on black marketeering, religion, and the sale of opium (Cushing and Tompkins 43). In the case of opium, the government imposed stiff criminal penalties, including the execution of suppliers and dealers. By 1951 addiction to opium had fallen off sharply, enabling the government to focus more on the social consequences of drug abuse and on educational and rehabilitation programs for victims and users. The most extreme of this art propaganda was that which went under the name of the new republic and new social order established by Mao (Cushing and Tompkins 45). Art propaganda was one of the most effective and simple ways to influence Chinese society and form national ideals and values. The propaganda was grounded in the needs of totalitarian society to create and exploit mass cultures. Art propaganda flowed from the leader, Mao, to the led, from a few to many, not from many to a few (Cheek 81). Posters and wallpapers were used to educate the peasants in the political process by making them aware of their political power and encouraging them to seize the land and kill their landlords. Following Knight (2002): "He [Mao] recognized and admired the revolutionary potential of China's peasants that had resulted from centuries of feudal exploitation and oppression. He recognised, too, that conditions were deteriorating in the countryside due to the economic effects of imperialism and the political instability resulting from the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the division of China between hostile warlords" (29). In fact, estimates of the number of counterrevolutionaries executed during the early period of Mao's domestic revolution range between 1 and 3 million people, figures that raised the specter of a government-sanctioned reign of terror (Cheek 80). Emotional appeal was made in every major section of art propaganda, and even legal arguments were fundamentally based upon emotionalism. The effort was constantly made to arouse fear and hate of the capitalists, and pity, love, and admiration for the workers and communist regime. A most important phase of this technique was the practice of exploiting idealism. The Chinese

Background And Pathophysiology Of Schizophrenia Psychology Essay

Background And Pathophysiology Of Schizophrenia Psychology Essay Schizophrenia is a severe chronic psychotic disorder associated with the brain and is characterised by symptoms classified into three major categories; positive, negative and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions and thought disorder. Negative symptoms consist of social withdrawal and flattening of emotional responses. In addition to this, deficits in cognitive function such as attention and memory are also often present in schizophrenic patients together with anxiety and depression. (Rang, 2007); (Lewis J A Lieberman 2000) Studies have shown several neurotransmitter systems such as serotonin, glutamate and dopamine to be involved in processes leading to the expression of the symptoms experienced in schizophrenia. Among these, the dopamine theory has received the most attention and it will be the focal point of this research. Serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter, has its place in explaining schizophrenia by trying to explain the elements of the disorder which were initially unexplained. This consisted of the negative symptoms and the actions of antipsychotics. Its role was recognised in the 1950s when it was discovered how similar serotonin was to LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide). LSD causes psychotic symptoms as it competes with serotonin and occupies its receptor sites. Atypical antipsychotics as well as blocking dopamine receptors, also act as 5-HT receptor antagonists. This hypothesis was confirmed when typical antipsychotics were combined with a 5-HT2 antagonist such as ritanserin. This resulted in relief of negative symptoms and extrapyramidal side effects. (Sadock, 2000) Glutamate has also been implicated in schizophrenia. This hypothesis is derived from evidence using PCP, a glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist. Administration produces psychotic symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in healthy subjects (Krystal et al. 1994) and negative cognitive symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. (Lahti et al. 1995) Phencyclidine, ketamine and dizocilpine, also glutamate NMDA receptor antagonists, provide psychotic symptoms in humans. Studies have also shown that there is reduction in glutamate receptor density and glutamate concentration in post-mortem brains of schizophrenic patients. (Rang 2007) The most common theory relating to schizophrenia is the dopamine one. The first formulation of the dopamine hypothesis suggests that excess mesolimbic dopamine is the reason for the positive symptoms. The evidence that this idea was based on included amphetamine abuse which increased synaptic dopamine leading to delusions (Laruelle et al. 1996) and that all antipsychotic drugs block dopamine D2 receptors. As this theory implied excess dopamine is responsible for positive symptoms, what is responsible for the negative and cognitive symptoms? Well, research has shown that negative and cognitive symptoms are the result of deficient dopamine in the pre fontal cortex due to D1 receptor dysfunction (K. L. Davis et al. 1991) There have been operational definitions of schizophrenia developed in an attempt the reliability of the diagnosis; The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) and The American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical method (DSM-IV-TR) and both contain lists of criteria but also insist that symptoms must have persisted for 6 months. PICTURE Schizophrenia usually presents itself in late adolescence or in early adult life (Kirkbride et al. 2006) with males having an earlier onset than females. In the UK, the mean age of first admission is about 22 years for men and 27 years for women. (Castle R M Murray 1991)Females also tend to have fewer negative symptoms and a better outcome than males. According to leading experts in this disorder, they have found that it is caused my many factors. One major factor is genetics, and schizophrenia occurs in 10% of people who have parents, brother or sister (first degree relatives) with the disorder. People who have grandparents, cousins or aunts and uncles (second degree relatives) also develop this disorder a lot more than the general public. (Kendler et al. 1993) Most importantly, the risk is at its greatest for a person who has a twin with schizophrenia. (Irving Gottesman 1991) PICTURE Several genes are related with the risk of schizophrenia but previously it was believed there is no particular gene that is responsible for the disease itself. Studies have shown that people with schizophrenia also have many rare gene mutations which involve many genes and disrupt the development of the brain. However in recent times, new research has shown there may be several susceptible genes. One such gene is DISC1 which could be linked to the development and treatment of schizophrenia. DISC1 plays a key role in the growth of individual neurons. Mutated Disrupted in Schizophrenia (DISC1) gene is seen to disrupt the growth and development of cells in the brain. When DISC1 levels were reduced in mice, cells in the brain failed to divide and the mice developed symptoms that mimicked schizophrenia in humans. (REFERENCE IMPORTANT ONE) Other than genes, environmental factors are probably important in the development of schizophrenia. These include exposure to infections, immunocompromised, stress and being in contact with toxic chemicals during childhood may slightly alter brain development. (Marcel ET AL REFERENCE 1999) Chlorpromazine was the first drug discovered to have antipsychotic properties, followed by haloperidol which was widely prescribed. This is an example of typical first generation medications and produced D2 receptor blockade. By 1980, second generation atypical drugs were out, most notably clozapine which was seen to be more potent in treating chronic patients. These had the benefits of also reducing negative symptoms and extreme side effects. Pharmaceutical companies in the 1990s started to take advantage of clozapine and develop drugs without its side effects and olanzapine is another popular atypical drug. In 2005, there was a study done known as the CATIE study, in the USA, comparing the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in clinical settings. It was seen that there were high rates of discontinuation; 64-82% over 18 months, due to patients not being able to tolerate side effects. Lack of efficacy was also found for all antipsychotic drugs in the study, although olanzapine was most effective (terms of discontinuation rates) than other drugs in the study. Despite this, olanzapine was associated with greater weight gain and increase glycosylated haemoglobin, cholesterol and triglycerides. These changes could have serious implications such as development of metabolic syndrome. (Jeffrey A. Lieberman et al. 2005) So why use or develop Chinese herb extracts as a therapeutic tool for schizophrenia? Although antipsychotic medication is still the foundation for the treatment in schizophrenia, it still leaves some people with unbearable side effects and distressing symptoms. The most common side effects are Parkinsonism, dystonia and akathisia and are most common with haloperidol and fluphenazine. (Schillevoort et al. 2001) (Levinson et al. 1990) Dystonic spasms affect the neck muscles tongue and face, and occur within a few days of treatment and are frequent at high doses. Akathisia is the restless leg syndrome and is characterised by great urges to move and difficulty in sitting still. Anti-cholinergic drugs can relieve these symptoms; they should not be given routinely as they also cause side effects such as blurred vision, constipation, dry mouth and euphoria. It is also important to remember that not all patients will get side effects from taking antipsychotics. Another long term side effect is tardive dyskinesia which is slow irregular movements particularly in the regions of the mouth, lips and protrusion of the tongue. Approximately 5% of the patients on antipsychotic medication developing this each year, but there is evidence that the incidence may be declining with increasing use of atypical antipsychotics. (Tarsy Baldessarini 2006) Due to the side effects, herbal medicines are commonly used for psychiatric purposes in both the developed and developing countries. (Walter Rey 1999) Studies have shown that some Chinese herbal medicines are effective for psychosis and that if used in conjunction with western medication, they enhance antipsychotic efficacy and reduce adverse effects. Another important aspect is that, Chinese herbs may be more accessible, acceptable and cheaper than drugs already available. Chinese herbal medication includes plants, fungi, resins, animal and mineral substances which are given within a formula which typically consist of 4 to 12 herbs. Administration is in the form of decoctions, pills, powders, tablets, phials and as standardized plant extracts. Chinese herbal medication has been known to treat schizophrenia for over 2000 years; although the methods used in Traditional Chinese medicine to diagnose and treat schizophrenia differs from that used in western medicine. In western medicine, it is usually diagnosed by criteria such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) but in Traditional Chinese Medication, its diagnosed by the Chinese Classification of Mental Disorder (CCMD). Figure shows the difference between diagnosing and treating Schizophrenia using traditional and Chinese herbal medication Traditional Chinese medicine differentiates schizophrenia into syndromes which determine the course of treatment. Therefore if two people are to be diagnosed with schizophrenia could have different clinical features (syndromes) therefore will require different medications. Each syndrome has a specific herbal formulation, but patients typically have mixed clinical features therefore they require precise formulations made by adding or substituting herbs. (Rathbone et al. 2007) Hype or hope? Is there really a benefit of using Chinese herbs as a therapeutic tool of schizophrenia? There have been several clinical trials done using Chinese herbal medication in the treatment of schizophrenia. One of the earlier studies was done using Dang gui cheng qi tang as the herbal medication given to the treatment group without the addition of the antipsychotic chlorpromazine which the control group received. The setting was in a hospital and participants were divided into groups randomly. It was reported that no participants left the groups early and the result showed that the global state outcome not improved /worse favoured the control group receiving chlorpromazine. (Rathbone et al. 2007) These results should be treated with caution given design limitations such as it being only conducted for 20 days, but nevertheless do not support that herbal medication should be used by itself for the treatment of schizophrenia. Further research and trials have been done which has incorporated using herbal medication together with an antipsychotic versus an antipsychotic alone. In 1997, Chinese herbal medications Dang gui cheng qi tang or xiao plus an antipsychotic was given to a treatment group compared to just the antipsychotic given to the control group. The allocation was randomized, lasted for 12 weeks and included hospital as well as community setting. The result showed that the treatment group scored significantly lower for the outcome of global state not improved/worse than the control group. (Rathbone et al. 2007) Global data score from the Clinical Global Impression scale (a rating scale measuring severity of symptoms, treatment response and efficacy of treatment) also favoured treatment groups that took the herbal medication plus antipsychotic. Ginkgo biloba was used with an antipsychotic for the treatment group in 1996 (Rathbone et al. 2007) and Shui zhi and Da huang were used with chlorpromazine. There were side effects associated with taking antipsychotics and taking herbal medications with antipsychotics showed that extra pyramidal side effects still arose. Constipation was however lower in the treatment group. (Rathbone et al. 2007) In 2001, Zhang et al did a study giving a treatment group Ginkgo biloba with haloperidol with the control group only receiving the latter. When compared, the study showed there was no difference between treatment group and control group when comparing negative symptoms and also when looking at Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale scores. However, the scale of positive symptoms did marginally favour the treatment group. (Rathbone et al. 2007) For all studies done in the past, we have to be aware that application of Chinese herbal medication is based on syndrome differentiation with failure of applying this differentiation resulting in ineffective or harmful treatment. There is no concrete evidence that when given alone, Chinese herbal medications offer benefits which are equal or even greater than antipsychotic drugs. When the herbal drugs are used with antipsychotics, they may offer improvement in symptoms but as there is still limited evidence in regards to Chinese herbs and traditional Chinese medication, this approach must still be considered new and more investigation is needed. Stepholidine is an active ingredient of the Chinese herb Stephania intermedia Lo, and belongs to an alkaloid group tetra-hydroberberine. (S. X. Xu et al. 1989) Initial research had shown that Stepholidine decreased blood pressure without exerting any adverse effects on the heart as well as exhibiting analgesia and any sedating effects on the central nervous system. Recent studies have shown stepholidine to be a pioneering drug in the treatment of schizophrenia because it is a dopamine D1 receptor agonist and a D2 receptor antagonist. Due to the pathogenesis of this disease suggests the dysfunction of D1 receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex, which is accompanied by hyperactivity of D2 receptors in subcortical regions such as ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc), when developing a antipsychotic drug should possess dual agonistic and antagonistic actions on the receptor. Stepholidine and its analogues tick these two important boxes. Stepholidine acts through D1 receptors to increase adenylyl cyclase activity and subsequent signalling pathways regulated by adenylyl cyclase might be responsible for the physiological responses, including rotational behaviour and changes in the firing activity of the neurons induced by Stepholidine. By contrast, Stepholidine inhibits both D2 auto-receptor mediated feedback inhibition of dopamine containing neurons and D2 receptor mediated effects on target non dopamine containing neurons. (Guo-Zhang Jin et al. 2002) There are several symptoms related to schizophrenia and insomnia is one of the most common. This could be partly related to the over-activity of the dopaminergic system. There has been a study done to show whether stepholidine modulates sleep behaviours. This was done in mice and the sleep-wake profiles were observed. From this study it has been concluded that stepholidine significantly increased the amount of NREM sleep and prolonged the duration of NREM sleep episodes, with reduction in the amount of wakefulness. Stepholidine had no effect on either the amount of REM sleep. Because it maintains NREM sleep in mice, it is suggested that it has the potential to be also used in the treatment of insomnia. (Qiu et al. 2009) Figure 1 shows the dual action of Stepholidine. Dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) project to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). The schizophrenia hypothesis suggests that D1 receptor dysfunction in the mPFC leads to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia and the D2 receptor hyperactivity in the sub-cortex nuclei leads to the positive symptoms of this disorder [1-4]. The D1 receptor agonist effect of SPD in the mPFC is suggested to ameliorate the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, whereas the D2 receptor antagonist effect of SPD that predominates in the sub-cortex would improve the positive symptoms The Stanley Medical Research Institute (SMRI) awarded a grant of Canadian $330,000 to Dr. Shitji Kapur and Dr. David Mamo in 2006 to study L-Stepholidine. The work they would do would be built up from previous knowledge of the drug already known. They conducted preclinical studies in rats and it showed to be a very promising compound. The goal then was to give it to humans and measure its D2 binding in an attempt at showing it indeed is a D2 drug in vivo using PET, and also estimate its expected therapeutic dose for future clinical studies. Having had several correspondences Dr Mamo, he has informed me that the main company in China had stopped the production of Stepholidine and for ensuring that the compound is pure without any contaminants and to assure the local regulatory authority the research was a safe study, they decided not to use stepholidine from China. Dr Kapur and Dr Mamo then collaborated with a chemist to synthesize stepholidine in a lab. Synthesis was fine, but the pr oblem was that they couldnt scale up the production to gram scale. A chemist had told him with further work, production was possible, but the SMRI was not willing to wait for this. The funding had to be given up but not for the reason that the drug wasnt showing promise. Another drawback in stepholidine is its bioavailability. Drugs given orally, acting on the central nervous system, should have good bioavailability and good blood brain barrier penetration. In rat based assays, it was seen that stepholidine, when administered orally, was poorly available to systemic circulation but could cross the blood brain barrier easily, resulting in good entry into the brain. Stepholidine was also found to have good permeability of the membrane that was not affected by efflux transporters such as P-gp or MRP2. Stepholidine which was absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract was also rapidly eliminated by glucuronidation of phenolic hydroxyl group, and less by sulphation, methylation, demethylation and /or N-oxidation. This poor bioavailability achieved by stepholidine could be due to the extensive pre systemic metabolism. A way to overcome this would be to develop pro-drugs, which would be chemically modified versions of stepholidine which will undergo enzymatic or chemical transformation for the active drug to be released. Example of this might be to modify the hydroxyl groups of stepholidine. (Sun et al. 2009) Due to its poor bioavailability, there has been significant development in recently towards the modification of stepholidine by development of series of derivatives. One derivative that has improved bioavailability while maintain the pharmacological properties of stepholidine, is bi-acetylated l-stepholidine. In recent times, although there has been an increase in material prosperity and growing success of traditional western medication, there has been an overall increase in psychotic disorders especially schizophrenia. Psychiatric patients not only want their symptoms to disappear, they also want to continue to lead a normal life without all their troubles. Psychiatric patients have better resources for the treatment now than ever before, but due to frequent disappointments in western medication especially due to its side effects; there has been increased growth of alternative and complementary methods in the treatment of patients. Sometimes patients also seek help from spell breakers, exorcists and herbalists. In recent times, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) approximately 80% of people in the world have relied on herbs in satisfying their medical care needs, and developed countries such as Germany, Italy and even the USA have shown a dramatic increase in herbal medicine consumption. Stepholidine had led the way in recent drug discovery with it being both a D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist activity. This is a unique pharmacological characteristic of DH-THPBs (dihydro) and will be vital in the future when developing new antipsychotic drugs. More so, another DH-THPB, 12-chloroscoulerine has been found to have more potent dual action than stepholidine. In this project, I will analyse research done with stepholidine in regards to it being a therapeutic tool in the treatment of schizophrenia. Word count 2,992

Role of the New Zealand Reserve Bank :: essays papers

Role of the New Zealand Reserve Bank The Reserve Bank of New Zealand’s Role and Polices. The 1980’s saw some major changes for New Zealand, but none as significant as the deregulation of the financial institutions and economic policy undertaken by the Labour government. The trigger for these changes occurred in 1984 whilst the country was still under the National party control. The economy was in a bad way, with inflation high, foreign debt through the roof, and the subsequent lack of equity left in the country. The National, ruled under Robert Muldoon, called a snap election, which lead to the Labour party taking control of the country. The new Prime Minister, David Lange, immediately froze the foreign exchange market due to the major flow of currency out of the country, caused by speculation of the New Zealand dollar being devalued. Five later the exchange was reopened with the New Zealand dollar being devalued by 20 cents. This first major reform conducted by the newly elected government was to be just one of many carried out during the deregulation of the next eight months. By March 1985 a number of reforms had been passed by government to help save the economy and bring it in line with other modern economies and financial systems throughout the world. These reforms included the removal of interest rate controls, removal of the limit on interest paid to savings accounts (previously 3%), removal of the 30-day rule (a rule for trading banks, halting them from paying interest on money deposited for less than 30 days), removal of the special position given to a number of dealers on the short term money market, removal of the limitations placed interest rates and maturity for off shore borrowings, reduction in boarder controls, and the floating of the New Zealand dollar on the exchange market. Perhaps the most important changes made, however, were the reforms of the Reserve Banks monetary policies (Spencer, 1990)(Spencer & Carey, 1988)(Peare, 1999). In 1986 the reforms, by the Labour party, of the New Zealand banking system began with expansion of the financial system to incorporate new domestic and foreign banks, with no limits placed of the number of new banks allowed. As well as leading to a more competitive banking system, it also lead to an increase in the powers of supervision allocated to the Reserve

China 1400’s

In the early 1400’s most people did not venture outside of their birthplace. Most did not live long lives. They died either from child birth, famine, or sickness. Their knowledge of Arts, medicine, work, and law was confined to the small village and the families that lived there. They would have traveled only a few miles to the next village to trade or shop for necessities. The bulk of their food intake would have been corn, wheat, sorghum, rice and barley. But not too far away in the same world there were missionaries, pilgrims, explorers, conquerors, seaman, caravan leaders and merchants.Explorers and conquerors made their way to villages and took people into their web of networks most against their will. In the beginning merchants were like lower class people. They were watched closely, and their activities were regulated. However as the world got bigger the merchants grew in power, wealth, and status. China was a power house in the early 1400’s. They were an advance d region and would have been best prepared for the emerging world market. They were trading silk, spices, tea, religion, and sickness. Sickness was a drawback/ disadvantage of having travelers, merchants and traders in your area.China had a fleet of ships that traveled to places such as Calicut, Thailand, and other countries. But in 1421 a emperor named Yongle stopped a voyages by the Ming Fleet, and in 1436 emperor Zhu Qizhen ordered the destruction of all shipbuilding plans. China became isolated from other countries and isolated from itself merchants and traders were not supported by the government and were not protected from pirates. The population almost tripled in size from the 1400’s to the 1600 to a staggering 160 million. The majority were poor and could not purchase from Chinese traders.

Free Essays on Daisy Miller & Huck Finn- American Adventures

NOSEWAKS@aOl.com March 20, 2002 DAISY MILLER AND HUCK FINN-AMERICAN ADVENTURERS After reading the two American classics â€Å"Daisy Miller† by Henry James, and â€Å"Huckleberry Finn† by Mark Twain, I thought about the messages these authors were saying about their societies. Both authors lived at a time when very influential things were happening in their worlds. The Civil War, and the ceaseless turmoil between social classes. Twain and James both wrote these two stories around the same period. Like everyone, they were influenced by their surroundings and personal experiences. Although they were both very different people with completely different backgrounds, they both managed to have leading characters that had the common problem of not fitting in their societies. Although James’ Daisy Miller and Twain’s Huck had a common problem, they both had very different ways of coping with it. They both had different strategies of living in an environment they didn’t completely control. Henry James had the very plain Miller family traveling throughout Europe at a time when many people in the world were immigrating to the Unites States. Her family was wealthy enough to pay for such a trip where she was able to stay at the most extravagant hotels in Europe. James makes it clear numerous times that the Miller family was new to this level of money. While Daisy stayed in these hotels she had a chance to see what the people of her new status were like. Coming from a background that was not as fortunate as the people she stayed with in Europe, she wanted what she couldn’t have had. She wanted to be part of the privileged society. In Europe, James has her finally getting what she wanted- the ability to interact with societies upper class. Daisy’s flaw was that she had the tool to be with the 1900th century aristocrats (money), but she didn’t have the culture to pass as one. This is a tragic conflict for her.... Free Essays on Daisy Miller & Huck Finn- American Adventures Free Essays on Daisy Miller & Huck Finn- American Adventures NOSEWAKS@aOl.com March 20, 2002 DAISY MILLER AND HUCK FINN-AMERICAN ADVENTURERS After reading the two American classics â€Å"Daisy Miller† by Henry James, and â€Å"Huckleberry Finn† by Mark Twain, I thought about the messages these authors were saying about their societies. Both authors lived at a time when very influential things were happening in their worlds. The Civil War, and the ceaseless turmoil between social classes. Twain and James both wrote these two stories around the same period. Like everyone, they were influenced by their surroundings and personal experiences. Although they were both very different people with completely different backgrounds, they both managed to have leading characters that had the common problem of not fitting in their societies. Although James’ Daisy Miller and Twain’s Huck had a common problem, they both had very different ways of coping with it. They both had different strategies of living in an environment they didn’t completely control. Henry James had the very plain Miller family traveling throughout Europe at a time when many people in the world were immigrating to the Unites States. Her family was wealthy enough to pay for such a trip where she was able to stay at the most extravagant hotels in Europe. James makes it clear numerous times that the Miller family was new to this level of money. While Daisy stayed in these hotels she had a chance to see what the people of her new status were like. Coming from a background that was not as fortunate as the people she stayed with in Europe, she wanted what she couldn’t have had. She wanted to be part of the privileged society. In Europe, James has her finally getting what she wanted- the ability to interact with societies upper class. Daisy’s flaw was that she had the tool to be with the 1900th century aristocrats (money), but she didn’t have the culture to pass as one. This is a tragic conflict for her....

Hello Mississippi essays

Hello Mississippi essays 1. The development of Muslim authority within India grew out of the demise of the Abbasid Caliphate in Persia. Eastward expansion under the Ghaznavids and the subsequent acquisition of territories in Northern India helped provide a stepping-stone for further insurgencies into the prosperous region of the Deccan and southern India. By way of introducing the Shari Law and many other Turkish administrative customs, the Muslim elite were able to consolidate their foothold in the various regions. Hindu regional elites were appeased and then later taxed under the rule of the Tughluqs. Their role in the localities was therefore central to both the development and the demise of Muslim hegemony in this period. The importation of a wealth of materials and technological advances in the form of horses and various ingenious agricultural inventions also serve to transform the social, political and economical environment in the region. However the very fact that the Hindu peoples made up the superi or portion of the population was systematic in preventing the extension of Muslim rule throughout. The various Hindu regional polities which grew out of the indirect rule of the Sultanates of Delhi and Daulatabad, notably Vijayanagar, underline this factor. The Ghurid acquisition of Ghazni in 1152 marked a marked growth of Muslims eastward expansion. Bringing with them a variety of new trades, (horses, slaves) the Ghurids, notably Ala Udin and Mahmud of Ghori, were able to supplant the local Rajput princes. After a decisive loss at Tarain in 1193 Mahmud of Ghori successfully swept to victory and toward Delhi in 1198. Although Mahmud was not instrumental in bringing about the growth of Delhi, his slave and lieutenant Aibak, quickly asserted himself as the ruling authority. Using a system of superior techniques and the extensive materials at his disposal Aibak was able to consolidate his position. Aibak himself quickly set up an independent stat ...

Strategy implementation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Strategy implementation - Assignment Example The names on the left are pocket-friendly; they are cheaper the further the arrow goes. As one move, the opposite direction to the right brands gets more expensive prices rise. Across the vertical side on the horizontal axis brands are more expensive. The price increase so does the content of the brands. The arrows also mean that one can get expensive and yet light brands or heavy brands depending on the closeness to the axis. All brands above the horizontal axis are heavy brands regardless of the price it costs. All those below the horizontal axis, there are brands that are light whether budget wise or are on the premium side. Above is a perceptual map for the shampoo market. Just like the beer perceptual map, the shampoo perceptual shows the different segments formed in the market for the products. There are different view and test that different people in the market will want. A Price of a product is always a critical factor to consider when purchasing a product. In the case of different types of shampoos, have different scents. The Net worth of a company shows how much a company would remain with is if it decided to end its business operations. When calculating the net worth of an entity or shareholders’ equity, sum up all assets both current and fixed and find the sum of all the liabilities the firm has. They include current liabilities and long-term liabilities To calculate the price-earnings ratio, one just finds the current price of the stock of a company and then divide it by earnings per share. In short, it is a ration of an organization’s stock price to that of the firm’s earnings per share. Outstanding shares are the common stock that a company authorizes to be issued and purchased by investors. Capital change will be the value in the equity column less the value in the increase of the company’s

The Factors that Affect Online Buying Decisions Essay

The Factors that Affect Online Buying Decisions - Essay Example It is generally expected that with the Internet, national and geographical boundaries should become irrelevant when engaging in business exchanges; consequently, global expansion on the Internet could promise greater customer reach and profits. However, although the adoption rate of Internet shopping is relatively high in the West, it is still generally unpopular in the East (Lee et al., 2004, 545). The above assumptions which present the current conditions regarding the use and the evaluation of an Internet site from a consumers’ perspective, although completed regarding the issues targeted they can, however, be been criticised as limited to the geographical aspect of the Internet usage. The current paper examines the online activity from the aspect of the transactions made, mostly the online shopping. Under these terms, the factors that affect the relevant decision are being examined in order to provide a specific and complete view on the issue. The use of research tools, su ch as questionnaires, has been evaluated as necessary in order to gather empirical information regarding the specific subject. Moreover, the data revealed are being analyzed and compared between them but also with the views of the literature, so that the formulation of a integrate result to be achieved at the highest possible level. According to a British Computer Society research (Kavanagh, 2005), online shoppers are starting to desert the High Street; however, the same survey also shows that many people are being excluded from electronic services. According to the above survey (which was conducted by interviewing a representative sample of 2,113 people aged over 15) about 35% of the people surveyed shop online — and nearly one-fifth of these now choose to shop online rather than visit the High Street; in addition, although 46% still prefer the High Street, 36% have no preference, again suggesting wide acceptance of online shopping.